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What Causes the Fizz?
Carbonate minerals are unstable in contact with hydrochloric acid. When acid begins to effervesce (fizz) on a specimen, a reaction similar to the one shown below is taking place. On the left side of this reaction, the mineral calcite (CaCO3) is in contact with hydrochloric acid (HCl). These react to form carbon dioxide gas (CO2),…
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What is the Acid Test?
To most geologists, the term “acid test” means placing a drop of dilute (5% to 10%) hydrochloric acid on a rock or mineral and watching for bubbles of carbon dioxide gas to be released. The bubbles signal the presence of carbonate minerals such as calcite, dolomite, or one of the minerals listed in Table 1. The bubbling…
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How Did They Do That?
The next time you go to a Fourth of July fireworks display, study the different types of bursts and imagine how they might have been accomplished. You can probably imagine how many of them are done.
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The Mechanics of an Aerial Fireworks Burst
The people who make fireworks are really clever. They combine a knowledge of chemistry and physics with artistic ingenuity to produce an infinite variety of fireworks bursts. How do they do it? They change the size, shape, density, composition and placement of the stars within the fireworks shell. By doing this they change the shape,…
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What Causes the Colors?
Chemistry holds the secrets to the color of a fireworks burst. The colors that you see in the sky are determined by metallic compounds that are deliberately added in very small amounts to the stars when they are manufactured. As the stars burn, the metal atoms absorb energy, become excited and emit a specific color…
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How Fireworks Work
An aerial fireworks burst is produced by launching a fireworks shell high into the air, where an explosion occurs. This explosion propels brightly burning particles (known as “stars”) in many directions. Each streak of light in the firework photos on this page is a burning “star” flying through the air. Examine the diagram of a…
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Art and Science of Fireworks Displays
Lights, Colors, Sounds, Shapes and Surprises! Why do fireworks displays attract so many people? There are many answers to this question, but most people simply enjoy the bright explosions of light, color and sound. Others enjoy being surprised by the shape and color of the fireworks bursts. These shapes and colors do not happen by…
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Rare Earth Element Outlook
The global demand for automobiles, consumer electronics, energy-efficient lighting, and catalysts is expected to rise rapidly over the next decade. Rare earth magnet demand is expected to increase, as is the demand for rechargeable batteries. New developments in medical technology are expected to increase the use of surgical lasers, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission…
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World Rare Earth Mineral Resources
“Rare earths are relatively abundant in the Earth’s crust, but discovered minable concentrations are less common than for most other ores. U.S. and world resources are contained primarily in bastnäsite and monazite. Bastnäsite deposits in China and the United States constitute the largest percentage of the world’s rare-earth economic resources, while monazite deposits in Australia, Brazil,…
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Dangers of a Dominant World Producer
Supply and demand normally determine the market price of a commodity. As supplies shrink, prices go up. As prices go higher, those who control the supply are tempted to sell. Mining companies see high prices as an opportunity and attempt to develop new sources of supply. With rare earth elements, the time between a mining…